Overview

• Reference genomes and GRC.

• Fasta and FastQ (Unaligned sequences).

• SAM/BAM (Aligned sequences).

• BED (Genomic Intervals).

• GFF/GTF (Gene annotation).

• Wiggle files, BEDgraphs and BigWigs (Genomic scores).

Are there we there yet?

• The human genome isnt complete! 

• In fact, most model organisms's reference genomes are being regularly updated.

• Reference genomes consist of mixture of known chromosomes and unplaced contigs called a " Genome Reference Assembly".

• The latest genome assembly for humans is GRCh38.

  • Patches add information to the assembly without disrupting the chromosome coordinates . i.e GRCh38.p3

Genome Reference Consortium 

• GRC is collaboration of institutes which curate and maintain the reference genomes for 3 model organims.
  • Human - GRCh38.p3
  • Mouse - GRCm38.p3
  • Zebrafish - GRCz10

• Other model organisms are maintained separately.
  •  Drosophila - Berkeley Drosophila Genome Project, BDGP36

Why do we need to know about reference genomes

• Allows for genes and genomic features to be evaluated in their linear genomic context.
  • Gene A is close to Gene B
  • Gene A and Gene B are within feature C.
• Can be used to align shallow targeted high-thoughput sequencing to a pre-built map of an organisms genome.

Aligning to a reference genomes

DNA/cDNA

Fragment

DNA (PCR amplify)

Sequence DNA

Unaligned

sequence

Aligned sequences

Reference genome

A reference genome

• A reference genome is a collection of contigs.
• A contig is a stretch of DNA sequence encoded as A,G,C,T,N.
• Typically comes in FASTA format.
  • ">" line contains information on contig
  • Lines following contain contig sequence

High-throughput Sequencing formats

Unaligned sequence files generated from HTS machines are mapped to a reference genome to produce aligned sequence files.

• FASTQ - Unaligned sequences 

• SAM - Aligned sequences

Unaligned Sequences

FastQ (FASTA with Qualities)

• "@" followed by identifier.
• Sequence information.
• "+" 
• Quality scores encodes as ASCI.

Unaligned Sequences

FastQ - Header

• Header for each read can contain additional information
  • HS2000-887_89 - Machine name.
  • 5 - Flowcell lane.
  • /1 - Read 1 or 2 of pair (here read 1)

Unaligned Sequences

FastQ - Qualities

• Qualities follow "+" line.
• -log10 probability of sequence base being wrong. 
• Encoded in ASCI to save space.
• Used in quality assessment and downstream analysis

Aligned sequences

SAM format

• SAM - Sequence Alignment Map.
• Standard format for sequence data
• Recognised by majority of software and browsers.

Aligned sequences

SAM - Header

• SAM header contains information on alignment and contigs used.
• @HD - Version number and sorting information
• @SQ - Contig/Chromosome name and length of sequence.

Aligned sequences

SAM - Aligned Reads

• Contains read and alignment information and location

Aligned sequences

SAM

• Read name.
• Sequence of read.
• Encoded sequence quality.

Aligned sequences

SAM

• Chromosome to which read aligns.
• Position in chromosome to which 5' of read aligns.
• Alignment information - "Cigar string".
  • ​100M - Continuous match of 100 bases
  • 28M1D72M - 28 bases continuously match, 1 deletion from reference, 72 base match

Aligned sequences

SAM

• Bit flag - TRUE/FALSE for pre-defined read criteria
  • Paired? ​Duplicate? 
  • https://broadinstitute.github.io/picard/explain-flags.html
• Paired read position and insert size
• User defined flags.

Summarised Genomic Features formats

Post alignment, sequences reads are typically summarised into scores over/within genomic intervals.

• BED - Genomic intervals and information.

• Wiggle/BedGraph - Genomic intervals and scores.

• GFF - Genomic annotation with information and scores

Summarising in genomic intervals.

BED format (BED)

• Simple format
• 3 tab separated columns
• Chromsome, start, end

Summarising in genomic intervals.

BED format (BED6)

• Chromosome, start, end
• Identifier
• Score
• Strand ("." for strandless)

Signal at genomic positions

Wiggle

• Information line
  • Chromosome
  • Step size
• Step start position
• Score

Signal at genomic positions

bedGraph

• BED 3 format
  • Chromosome
  • Start 
  • End
• 4th column - Score

Genomic Annotation

GFF

• Used to genome annotation.
• Stores position, feature (exon) and meta-feature (transcript/gene) information.

Genomic Annotation

GFF

• Chromosome
• Start of feature
• End of Feature
• Strand

Genomic Annotation

GFF

• Source
• Feature type
• Score

Genomic Annotation

GFF

• Column 9 contains key pairs (ID=exon01), separated by semi-colons ";"
• ID - Feature name.
• PARENT- Meta-feature name.

Saving time and space

bigWig, bigBED and TABIX

• Many programs and browsers deal better with compressed, indexed versions of genomic files
  • SAM -> BAM (.bam and index file of .bai)
  • Wiggle and bedGraph -> bigWig (.bw/.bigWig)
  • BED -> bigBed (.bb)
  • BED and GFF -> (.gz and index file of .tbi)

Getting help and more information

• UCSC file formats
  • https://genome.ucsc.edu/FAQ/FAQformat.html
• IGV file formats
  • https://www.broadinstitute.org/igv/FileFormats
• Sanger (GFF)
  • https://www.sanger.ac.uk/resources/software/gff/spec.html